Please follow this format in posting your entries:
Begin Timeline Below This Line (please leave these formatting instructions at the top of the timeline)
55 B.C. - 410 B.C. Roman Occupation of Londinium
Alex Corigliano
The Roman conquest of Britain was a process that took centuries, beginning with Julius Caesar and ending with Emperor Honorius. (Davis 27) In 55 BC, during Caesar’s campaign against Gaul, Caesar turned his eyes toward the British Isles who were only 21 miles away. The British tribes aided the Galls during the conquest and Caesar wanted to teach them a lesson. He attacked the British twice with but did not have enough interest in them to consider a full campaign. It was not until the emperor Claudius turned his attention to Britain in A.D 43 that the Romans occupied Britain. (Davis 28) Claudius sent out his best garrisons for the taking of Britain and filled his garrisons with architects, masons, engineers, clerks and medical staff to build roads and bridges to aid in sustaining a successful occupation.
It was there that an early version of the “London Bridge” was built, and, with it being a convenient central point for other roads, the Romans settled in Londinium where it became an important trading center. It was during Roman occupation where Londinium thrived and at its peak housed 40,000 people. The overall safety of the British improved vastly under Roman rule and experienced an extended period of peace when they built the London wall in A.D. 200. (Davis 29) The boundaries of London were defined for a millennium by this wall, whose remains can still be found today. Roman rule swindled around the 5th century A.D., when the Roman Emperor Honorius ignored requests for more Roman protection in Britain with his empire collapsing, and, in 410, the Visigoths invaded and Roman rule and influence collapsed.
Works Cited:
Davis, Paul K. Encyclopedia of Invasions and Conquests from Ancient Times to the Present. ABC-CLIO Inc. 1996. Print.
Ross, David. “Roman London.” Britain Express. (no date) Web.
(d. 604) - St. Augustine of Canterbury
Dina DiMedio
Augustine was a monk turned missionary when Pope Gregory the Great recruited him to lead forty monks from Rome to England on the first official Christian mission to the Anglo-Saxons (Mayr-Harting 950). The group was met by King Æthelberht of Kent, who authorized Augustine and his men to begin baptizing the people of his kingdom. It is said that on Christmas Day in 597, Augustine had baptized over 10,000 men (Shook 645). Beyond converting Æthelberht’s kingdom to Christianity, Augustine established two Christian churches in Canterbury as well as a monastery. The first church that was established was St. Martin’s, which was where the mission initially held it’s services until the second church, Christ Church, was completed and made Augustine’s cathedral. Sometime in late July of 597, during the journey to Britain, Augustine was consecrated bishop, and became the first archbishop of Canterbury (Mayr-Harting 948-949). St. Augustine died on 26 May 604 and was initially buried outside of the church of St Peter and St Paul, but was moved to its north chapel upon completion. (Mary-Harting 950).
Works Cited
Mayr-Harting, Henry. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Volume 2. Oxford University Press. 2004. Print.
Shook, L.K. Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Volume 1. American Council of Learned Societies. 1982. Print.
“Wanderer” by Unknown Author (Old English, Anglo-Saxon Poem),Sometime Between the 6th and the 10th Century
Author: Zack Murphy
“Wanderer”
“Wanderer” is “An Old English poem preserved in the Exeter Book.” (Dominic 1168) It is “One of the Old English Elegies and also belongs to the larger genre of wisdom literature.” (Lapidge 466) The poem is about a wanderer or a man who has lost everything, he used to have family and friends but now they are all gone and he is left alone on this earth. The “Wanderer” cannot find any peace until “finally the voice of wisdom asserts that the world’s wealth is transitory and faith in God is the only source of security.”( Dominic 1168) The Wanderer is a poem that has never had an identified author and is estimated to have been written sometime between the sixth and tenth century, and “all though there is some disagreement about the poem’s speech boundaries and its possible religious symbolism, the “Wanderer” is now generally accepted as a unified and thoroughly Christian poem. The “Wanderer” has been directly linked to the changing historical trends of European and Anglo-Saxon literary theory.
Works Cited
Klinck, Anne L. "Wanderer." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Ed. Michael Lapidge. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford Blackwell, 1998. 466. Print.
“Wanderer, The” The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English. Ed. Dominic Head. 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006. 1168. Print.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
673-735: Bede and Ecclesial History of the English People
Bridget Smith
Also known as “The Vernable Bede,” Bede was a historian born in Monkton, Durham. He described his life as being one devoted to prayer, learning, teaching and writing (Campbell 758). Bede’s religious journey began officially at the age of seven when he went to the monastery in Wearmouth. Following this, Bede went to the monastery in Jarrow, became a deacon at 19 and a priest at 30. Jarrow is where Bede would reside for the remainder of his life.
Bede’s Ecclesial History of the English People or Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum was completed around 731. The text “traces the development of Christianity in Britain from the barbarous, disparate Christian and heathen groups left after the withdrawal of the Roman empire…” (“Bede” 84). Broken up into five different books, this text covers England’s entire history, begins with Caesar’s invasion around 55 B.C. and goes right up to Bede’s life. The original references on Anglo-Saxon history and has played a key role in the developing of the English identity.
Works Cited:
“Bede.” The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English. Ed. Dominic Head. 3rd ed. 2006. 758-756. Print.
Campbell, J. “Bede.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2004 ed. Vol. 4. 84. Print.
7th-8th Century: The Staffordshire Hoard
Sabrina Byrne
The Staffordshire Hoard is a collection of Anglo-Saxon war related gold and silver objects. The hoard was found "...in a field near the village of Hammerwich, near Lichfield, in Staffordshire, England on 5 July 2009, it consists of more than 3,500 items" (The Find). It is still unknown as to why these items were buried here. Some believe "it was buried to keep out of enemies hands, to "bank" a fortune, to serve as a votive offering" (Alexander). The collection contained all war related items, no female related items and only three religious related items. The collection has been dated back to the 7th or 8th century (The Find). The craftsmanship of the items was the very best of its time period, consisting of gold and tiny garnets to show the value of the item (The Find). This hoard is important to English Literature because it helps us date pieces of literature back to their appropriate dates based on actual evidence. It also gives us a sense of reassurance that the impressive weapons and treasures that are portrayed in novels we actually used in real life. The Staffordshire Hoard is a brilliant find that is still being examined and interpreted to this day.
Works Cited
Alexander, Caroline. "Magical Mystery Treasure." National Geographic (2011): n. pag. Web. 29 Jan. 2014
"The Find." Stafforshirehoard.org. n.d. Web 29 Jan. 2014
1066: The Norman Conquest
Anna Costanza
The Norman Conquest was the conquest of England done by William I (also known as William the conqueror). William’s new reign over England came with the introduction of a new royal family, and the widespread use of feudalism as a class system (Gardiner 554). Feudalism became the dominant class structure in England during this time period, due to William as king. Along with the change in class structure came a complete new language and culture, as well as the oppression of English born citizens (Gardner 554). The language became a mixture of anglo-saxon and norman (French) which still holds true to our language today.The English did not take well to the oppression, so many revolts were organized. The widespread uproar, particularly the revolt of 1069 was difficult to contain due to the extremely small size of the Norman army (Szarmach 787). To deal with the English retaliation, William adopted very harsh methods to contain the situation. He destroyed most of Yorkshire, and many people died of starvation, this worked to stop rebellion, but proved that William was a very Harsh dictator (Szarmach 788). The Norman conquest was a key component in the transformation of English culture to the culture we see today, and was the driving force of the melding of different cultures.
Works Cited:
Gardiner, Juliet, and Neil Wenborn. "Charles I." The Columbia Companion to British History. New York: Columbia UP, 1997. 554-55. Print.
Loud, Graham. "William I." Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. New York, NY: Facts on File, 1995. 787-89. Print.
____________________________________________________________________________
1120-1170: Thomas Becket
Caitlin Adams
Thomas Becket lived from 1120 until 1170, after being ended short inside his own cathedral church where he was earlier in his life appointed Archbishop. Frequently referred and known as “England’s best-known saint and martyr,” Becket was well educated in his younger years and later became a resident of the household of Archbishop Theobald (Vaughn 114). This allowed him to further his administrative skills and provided “training at the hands of his own predecessors” (Vaughn 114). In 1154 when Henry II ascended the throne, Becket was chosen as his chancellor. In his time as chancellor he gave a new definition to the position that allowed much more power to him. Following the passing of prior Archbishop Theobald, Becket was chosen by Henry to be the new Archbishop of Canterbury. As soon as Becket was appointed to be the Archbishop it was obvious to him that he would have “to play a completely new role, which he had to learn;” transitioning from a man of the court to a man of the cloth (Barlow 704). Giving up the lavish, grandeur life that he had gotten so accustom to and becoming a man of sacrifice and giving. During this transformation, he clashed often with Henry over various issues with the canon law. This caused Becket to flee to exile, both men continuing to be stubborn and unwilling to compromise on minuscule issues. When compromise finally arose in 1170, Thomas burned the bridge by excommunicating all of the supporters that Henry had. Infuriating the King’s knights so extremely that they took a statement from Henry in which he asked for them to aid him against Thomas as a command to murder him. Becket was killed by these knights on December 29, 1170 in the Canterbury Cathedral and later canonized a Saint.
Work Cited
Barlow, Frank “Becket, Thomas.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2004 ed. Vol. 60. Print.
Vaughn Sally N “Becket, Thomas (1120-1170).” Medieval England: An Encyclopedia. 1998 ed. Print.
1370-1390, The Pearl-poet (14th century)
Gina Varroney
The Pearl-poet is the designation given to an anonymous late 14th century poet who is generally assumed to have written the poems Pearl, Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. All of these works were found in a single MS found in the British Library Cotton Nero. There is no external evidence of the author’s identity but it does seem likely that one person wrote all four of these poems (Twomey, 587). The Cotton Nero MS offers little help in resolving the question of authorship. Assuming one author, critics have often derived at the idea that Cleanness and Patience were written in the author’s youth, whereas Pearl and Gawain are regarded as “works of his maturity.” A fifth poem, St. Erkenwald, is often attributed to the Pearl-poet by critics as well. The author’s knowledge of the Bible and biblical commentary suggests that he was a cleric (Twomey, 588).
Since the poems were untitled in the manuscript, the first three poems mentioned above were titled by their first words, and the fourth poem is titled by subject matter. Gawain is the most widely received and known, the poet of these works is also referred to as the Gawain-poet. These poems are regarded as the highest achievement of the 14th-century Alliterative Revival (Twomey, 587).
Pearl’s demanding verse form uses alliteration, rhyme, and concatenation (linking stanzas in the beginning with the previous stanza’s last word). Pearl consists of 101 twelve-line stanzas, that each rhyme ABABABABBCBC, they are in twenty groups of five-that each have their own concatenating word-except for group XV(15), which has six stanzas, and the poem has a total of 1,212 lines. Pearl combines elegy, allegory, homily, debate, and dream vision. Pearl, Patience, and Gawain end by echoing their opening lines (Twomey, 588). Dream visions, debates, and dialogues were productive forms for allegory in Middle English. Like the biblical view of Revelation, dream visions grant a transcendent view of existence. Debates require figures of equal status; the dialogue requires figures in the roles of teacher and student. Pearl suggests a fictional autobiography (Twomey, 25-26).
Work Cited
Twomey, Michael. "Pearl-poet." Medieval England, an Encyclopedia. New York & London, Garland Publishing Inc. 1998. 25-26, 587, 588. Print.
1340-1400: Geoffrey Chaucer
Alyssa Wilson
Geoffrey Chaucer has was born sometime in the 1340’s, but his birthdate has never been able to be specified (Gray 247). Over the first twenty years of his life, Chaucer did much traveling between London and France, during which time he participated in military movements before falling into a period seven years of quiet. Chaucer reappears in history around the time of his marriage in 1366 and birth of two sons after, Thomas and Lewis. Between 1368 and 1378, Chaucer had many life changing events happen with relocation and job changing that are reflected later on in his poetry. This is especially true for the time he spent in Italy, exposing himself to a new culture. By 1385, he retired from the Custom House and began life in Kent as a justice of the peace. In his remaining 15 years, Chaucer moved to Westminster. His tomb lies in Poets’ Corner in Westminster Abbey (“Geoffrey Chaucer” 197).
Chaucer, both during his lifetime and throughout the 15th century, was known to be the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages. It has been proven difficult to place the exact order of his poems, but he did contribute to literature that is very much relevant today including The Canterbury Tales. His longest, and believed to be first, piece, The Book of the Duchess, has been linked to the death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster and holds a strong influence of French culture and writing. Many of the works of Geoffrey Chaucer hold influence from the French, but also the Italians. In addition to his own work, Chaucer translated many texts into English which was unusual for someone of his time (“Geoffrey Chaucer” 197). In doing so, he contributed to making English the language of literature (“Geoffrey Chaucer 198).
Works Cited
“Geoffrey Chaucer.” The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English. 3rd ed. 2006. Print.
Gray, Douglas. "Chaucer, Geoffrey." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 11. 2004. Print.
1348-1350, The Black Death (14th century)
Ian Belfatto
The Black Death, otherwise known as the Plague or Black Plague, occurred sometime during the 14th and destroyed entire populations throughout Europe. The disease was made up “of two strains, one bubonic and pneumonic” (Bunson, 369). The bubonic plague caused a “swelling in the lungs” and pneumonic plague “affected the lungs” allowing the plague to be spread through the air (Bunson, 369). The plague originated in Central Asia in 1348, and made it’s way to “Italy, France, and England” (Bunson, 369) between 1348 and 1349, before reaching Germany in 1350. It was so deadly that “regions in Europe lost two-thirds to three-fourths of their populations” and it is estimated that over the course of the plague “25 million people (¼) of Europe’s population died during the Black Death” (Bunson, 369).
As a result of the Black Death, a change in in art and literature can be seen. There was a “change in the way death was depicted” (Strayer, 266). For example, funeral monuments began to depict “macabre corpses, with snakes and serpents surrounding their bones” (Strayer, 266).
Writers also began to reflect “the new social realities and contradictions” (Strayer, 266).
Works Cited
Bunson, Matthew. "Plague of 542." Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. New York, NY: Facts on File, 1995. 369. Print.
Strayer, Joseph R. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. New York: Scribner, 1982. Print.
1455-1535: Wynkyn de Worde
Jenny Hamren
Wynkyn de Worde’s date of birth is unknown but may have been about 1455. Moving to Westminster he worked alongside William Caxton, and inherited his print shop at Caxton’s death in 1492. Going beyond simple printing he is credited with moving printing into a new era, bringing an artistic and scholarly approach to printing. He printed five books in two years before leaving Westminster for London in 1500. His established print house was the first printer to open on Fleet Street in London and helped London as an already growing publishing center. Worde’s books were remarkable by their attractive woodcuts and illustrations that marked the educational texts as well as his religious and spiritual books. The quantity and diversity of the books he published encouraged patrons and customers of all kinds. Leaving behind a large estate, Wynkyn de Worde died sometime between June 1534 and January 1535. Though being married throughout his life, his will makes no mention of any surviving wives or children. He left his business to John Byddell, a former servant and printer, and was remembered as a personable and kind man.
Blake, N. F. “Worde, Wynkyn de.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2004 ed. Vol. 60. Print.
“Printing”. Historical Dictionary of Tudor England 1485-1603. Ed. Ronald H. Fritze. 1991 ed. Print.
Elizabeth of York (1466-1503)
Author: Anthony Lapinsky
Elizabeth of York was born at Westminster on February 11, 1465 or1466 and baptized in the abbey. There is some discrepancy on the year that she was born in. According to the, Who’s Who in History, Elizabeth was born in 1465, but according to the, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Elizabeth was born in 1466. Both agree on the fact that she died in the year of 1503 on her birthday due to a failed pregnancy. She was born to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville and her godparents are the duchesses of York and Bedford and the earl of Warwick (Horrox 82).
Growing up, Elizabeth was set up to marry many different such as George Neville and Marquess of Montagu, but all of these wedding plans fell through for the own unique reasons. When Elizabeth was eighteen, her father, Edward IV, died and her mother took her brother and sisters to live into the sanctuary at Westminster (Routh 5). Because of this, Elizabeth was set to marry Henry Tudor of Richmond as soon as he could secure the throne and become King. Henry and Elizabeth got married on January 18, 1486. Once Henry VII became King and Elizabeth became Queen of England, Elizabeth barely did anything. “That moment in which Elizabeth of York became Queen of England her life loses its political interest” (Horrox 84). “Elizabeth is one of the least important, though not the least attractive, of the queens of England” (Routh 6). Even though Queen Elizabeth had no real power, she was Queen during a time where women were seen as inferior to men. By having a Queen of England, female writers could have possibly taken a liking to this and built up the confidence and courage to start writing. “She is still commemorated as the model for the queen on our playing cards” (Routh 6).
Works Cited
Horrox, Rosemary. "Elizabeth of York." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Volume 18 ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. 82-85. Print.
Routh, C. R. N.. "Elizabeth of York." Who's Who in History. Volume II. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1960-1974. 5-6. Print.
Cardinal Wolsey (1475?-1530)
Zac Schiff
Thomas Wolsey was a distinguished, though controversial, figure in British History. Despite his eventual high rank as a cardinal and a powerful assistant to Henry VIII, Wolsey was born into an economically modest family, as his father was reputed to have been a butcher (Concise Dictionary of National Biography, 1430). In 1501 he became archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1515 Pope Leo X named him Cardinal (CDNB, 1430). The same year, he became Henry VIII’s “principal minister in charge of domestic affairs” (Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 23). He was sometimes regarded as power-hungry and, “so ambitious that, as his enemies made out, he fell into treason” (ODNB, 33).He was known for officiating marriages between very important people, such as that between Princess Mary and Emperor Charles of Spain; he was also prolific in diplomatic affairs, negotiating treaties with France (CDNB, 1430). Cardinal Wolsey played a part in Henry VIII’s famous attempt to divorce Katherine of Aragon. This episode would prove fateful for him, as he would eventually be blamed for Henry’s failure to procure permission from the Pope for the divorce, leading to him being arrested for high treason on November 1, 1529 (ODNB, 34.) So, despite being an important servant to his country, he died somewhat in disgrace.
Works Cited
“Wolsey, Thomas” Concise Dictionary of National Biography. 9th ed. 1948. Print.
“Wosley, Thomas.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 2004 ed. Vol. 60. Print.
1503-1542: Sir Thomas Wyatt
Danielle Walsh
Born in Kent at the Allington Castle, his father, Henry Wyatt was a close council member to King Henry VII. Thomas soon took his post and became very close with the King over his life. He spent a lot of time travelling and serving the King in various faculties. His poetry is only published in an anthology called Tottel’s Miscellany published in 1557. He was part of the new Italian influenced lyrical poetry of the time of King Henry VII rule. Tottel’s Miscellany is said to be the ‘fountainhead of Elizabethan verse’ (Baldi).
The anthology was forgotten nearing the end of the 16th century and then revived around the 18th century. Critics only looked at the poems of Wyatt and the others in the book with historical importance and not as good poetry. Not until the 20th century when the anthology was revisited again does Wyatt gain acclaim. The poetry of Pound and Eliot helped this realization occur. His poetry has a “rhythm not yet corrupted by… ‘correct’ verse” (Baldi). With Wyatt’s help the sonnet, the ottava rima and iambic pentameter were brought to English culture from Italy.
Works Cited
Baldi, Sergio. “Sir Thomas Wyatt.” Trans. F.T. Prince. British Writers. Ed. Ian Scott-Kilvert. Vol. 1
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1979. 97-112. Print.
Everyman (C. 1509-19)
Brendan Tanner
Everyman is a play about morality. It is most likely derived from a similar Dutch play, Elckerlijc. It is the most admired English morality play and has a revival of popularity in the 20th century. Everyman is about the judgment day that we will all eventually come to face. In the play, he is summoned by Death, and discovers his friends Fellowship, Kindred Cousin, and Goods will not go with him. It is an allegory for the forces inside and outside of us that can help to save us, or that obstruct our salvation. Everyman lacks the normal broad humor of a morality play, instead using grim humor through showing how quick the Everyman’s friends abandon him in his time of need. The lines of Knowledge have become rather memorable: “Everyman, I will go with thee and be thy guide, in thy most need to go by thy side.” These lines are on the title pages of volumes published in Everyman’s library.
Works Cited:
“Everyman.” The Oxford Companion to English Literature. 7th ed. 2009. Print.
“Everyman.” The Norton Anthology of English Literature: Volume 1. 8th ed. 2000. Print.
Utopia (1516)
Brendan Tanner
Utopia is the main literary work of Sir Thomas More. It was originally published as an essay in two books, which were written in Latin. More wrote in Latin so he could reach an audience of humanist intellectuals. The first book is about the current condition of England, which is contrasted by the second book, which describes the utopia “Nowhere land” as narrated by Raphael Hythloday. More says he met Hythloday in Antwerp. Some leading communists celebrated Utopia as a forerunner of their social system. The utopians practice a form of communism, using a national system of education for both men and women, and allowing freedom of religion. They have only recently been introduced to Christianity and printing. Utopia was translated by Ralph Robinson into English in 1551. The term “utopia” is coined by More, and is now used to describe many fictions, fantasies, and blueprints for the future, such as Plato’s Republic.
Works Cited:
“Utopia” The Oxford Companion to English Literature. 7th ed. 2009. Print.
“Sir Thomas More” The Norton Anthology of English Literature: Volume 1. 8th ed. 2000. Print.
1537-1554: Lady Jane Grey
Danielle Walsh
Born a noble woman in Bradgate, Leicestershire on October 1537. Her parents were Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, and Frances, the daughter of the Duke of Suffolk. She was a very intelligent girl, loved to read in many languages. She was very focused on her study of the protestant religion. In July of 1553 she was married to Guildford Dudley the son of the Duke of Northumberland, John Dudley. John Dudley in conspiracy with the King, in order to keep the throne out of the hands of his Catholic half sister Mary, made Jane the heir to his throne. She did not feel she was qualified but accepted and became Queen on July 10. She refused to make Dudley her King which caused trouble for her with the Dudley family.
Those who supported Mary did not accept her as their Queen and launched an attack. The Duke of Northumberland was unable to suppress the opposition and the Duke, Jane and her husband were taken as prisoner. She lived as prisoner until 1554 after Thomas Wyatt’s rebellion. Her father now the Duke of Suffolk got involved and the state could no longer show mercy to Jane. She stood as a symbol of protestant rebellion. She was put to death on February 12th 1554 at the age of sixteen.
Works Cited
Plowden, Alison. “Grey, Lady Jane.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Ed. H.C.G. Matthew,
Brian Harrison. Vol. 23. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print.
Group Four: Playwriting
The Geneva Bible (1560)
Timothy Knapp
The translation of the Bible into English has been an evolving and collaborative process. The Geneva Bible was an early translation that appeared in 1560, called this because its translators were English divines who had fled from England to Geneva to escape the persecution of Queen Mary I. Geneva at the time was a hub of research and textual translations into European vernacular (Head 100). The Geneva Bible became the most international English translation, and particularly popular among English Puritans and Scottish Presbyterians. It was used and studied universally, influencing and referenced in works by William Shakespeare and John Milton.
Many scholars are credited with the translation of the Geneva Bible, among them Miles Coverdale, William Whittingham, Anthony Gilby, Christopher Woodman, Thomas Sampson, Thomas Cole (Adams 74). The Bible was designed as a universal text for various reading levels and contained indexes, maps, illustrations, and explanatory notes. It was also known for some time as the Breeches Bible, in reference to the usage of the word “breeches” for Adam and Eve’s clothing in the book of Genesis.
Adams, W. Davenport. “Bible, The.” Dictionary of English Literature. Second Ed. 1966. Print.
Head, Dominic. “Bible in English, The.” The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English. Third Ed. 2006. Print.
1564-1593, Christopher Marlowe
Lauren Kirshner
Christopher Marlowe, born in Canterbury, England, was a distinguished playwright of the late 1500s. He attended Christ Church in 1580 to prepare him for a religious lifestyle and career. However, he chose a different approach to his life- writing his seven explicit and oftentimes, disturbing plays- once he received his degree in 1587. Although his seven plays came to be described as “astonishing juxtapositions of aesthetic refinement and blunt cruelty, of limitless aspiration and sardonic deflation” (Levao 463), Marlowe’s writing gained prestige and soon he was considered by some as Shakespeare’s adversary.
Marlowe’s first triumph as a playwright, Tamburlaine the Great, was such a respected accomplishment that he was encouraged to write a part two to Tamburlaine the Great. Yet, his plays Edward II and Doctor Faustus, are deemed his masterpieces. Edward II examines the need for companionship, as the protagonist “luxuriates in and is manipulated by his taste for erotic self-indulgence” (Levao 464-465). Doctor Faustus analyzes the necessity for ambition, which turns into damnation for Faustus. Christopher Marlowe also wrote poetry, most notably Hero and Leander, which is one of the most sexually arousing poems of the English Renaissance. Unfortunately, before he finished Hero and Leander, he died in Deptford from a stab wound in a pub fight. Although Marlowe was involved in unlawful activities, such as involvement in spy networks, his plays are viewed positively as “energetic, restless, generically daring explorations of selfhood” (Macmullan 620).
Works Cited:
Levao, Ronald L. “Marlowe, Christopher (1564-1593).” Tudor England: An Encyclopedia. 2001. Print.
Macmullan, Gordon. “Marlowe, Christopher.” The Oxford Companion to British History. 1997. Print.
Titus Andronicus (1594)
Sophia Beratta
Titus Andronicus (T.A.), which is said to be one of Shakespeare’s earliest plays ever written, is known for it’s gruesome, Roman like themes of revenge and gore. Shakespeare’s very first attempt at a tragedy, the play is poor in plot and lacks a certain finesse that his later tragedies. The play was first produced in 1594, in which the first quarto edition was written and published. There are two other quarto editions known to have existed. The second quarto, published in 1600 with a few mistakes fixed. And the third quarto edition, published in 1611, with the ending changed. In 1623, T.A. was put into the first folio of Shakespeare’s works with extensive stage directions, division of the acts, and a scene added in to Act III, all derived from a prompt book.
The play is rich in Senecan themes such as revenge, violence, and heavy focus on spectacle.
This could be categorized as a revenge tragedy with emphasis on the opposition of the Romans and the Goths (good and evil). Many scholars have agreed that while Shakespeare most likely didn’t plagiarize T.A., he did probably rewrite an older play that was the same story as T.A.
Works Cited:
Boyce, Charles, and David Allen White. "Titus Andronicus." Shakespeare A to Z: The Essential Reference to His Plays, His Poems, His Life and Times, and More. New York: Facts on File, 1990. 647-51. Print.
Dobson, Michael, and Stanley Wells. "Titus Andronicus." The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2001. 478-80. Print.
1601- Essex's Rebellion
Jessica Corrado
Essex's Rebellion took place in 1601 and was led by the 2nd earl of Essex, Robert Devereux (1566-1601) (Cannon 357). Due to previous behavior when he was the lord deputy in Ireland in 1599, he was placed under house arrest despite being the favorite of Queen Elizabeth. The trial, however was canceled in August of 1600, and Essex was free to move as he wished but could not return to court (Levine 183). Even as he tried to obtain permission to do so, he was plotting a rebellion. The purpose of the rebellion was to force the Queen to change the leaders in her government.
Three days after a meeting of the conspiracy leaders, Essex's followers went to the Globe Theatre to request a performance of Shakespeare’s Richard II with an additional, previously banned scene.The company originally refused, however with an offer of extra pay they agreed (Levine 184). This play was supposed parallel and show the weakness of Elizabeth's rule. The next day Essex was summoned to the council, however he refused. His plan was in pieces, but the next day Essex began his uprising regardless. Four messengers were sent to Essex in the name of the Queen, and Essex kept them as hostages. Essex was denounced as a traitor before he could take any action and his support vanished, and upon returning to his home the hostages had vanished as well. Essex burnt any incriminating evidence, but was tried and found guilty on February 19th., (Levine 184). On February 25th, 1601, he was beheaded.
Works Cited:
Cannon, J.A. “Essex, Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of” The Oxford Companion to British History. Ed. John Cannon. Oxford: Oxford U Press,
1997. Print.
Levine, Carole. “Essex's Rebellion” Historical Dictionary of Tudor England, 1485-1603. Ed. Ronald H. Fritze. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1991. Print.
The Virginia Company (1606)
Jessica Jones
The Virginia Company, based out of London, received its first charter to “plant colonies along the coast of North America between the 34th and 41st degrees of latitude” in 1606 from King James I of England, (Ciment, 873). This was England’s first venture into colonization overseas, and only the ships that sailed for the Chesapeake Bay reaped any rewards; the poor “Plymouth branch of the Company sought to establish a settlement in what became New England, but met little success,” (Palmer, 351). The Company set out to establish democratic governments in their settlements and to spread Protestant Christianity. Literature was utilized by the Company in the form of ballads, pamphlets, and novels, such as John Smith’s “A True Religion…of Virginia,” which “emphasized both Virginia’s economic possibilities and God’s care for the colonists,” (Ciment, 873). Although founded on mostly good intentions, the Company was not entirely successful, and by 1624 had been put to an end by the court of King’s Bench in England for corruption.
Works Cited
Ciment, James. "Virginia Company." Colonial America, An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History. 4. Armonk, NY: 2006. Print.
Palmer, Alan. Dictionary of the British Empire and Commonwealth. London: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd., 1996. Print.
Chandler Resciniti
The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
Catholics were displeased by James I ruling and there was a large amount of hostility against the Catholics to satisfy the Puritans. Since there was such unhappiness towards James I, many wanted to plot to kill him, giving us the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. The main conspirator was Robert Catesby who recruited men starting with his cousin, Thomas Winters and close friend, John Wright. Eventually, they added Thomas Percy and Guy Fawkes into their scheme in early 1604 along with Sir Edward Digby, Ambrose Rookwood, and Francis Tresham. But those three men were strictly added to finance the plot. Percy rented a house next door to the parliament with a cellar under it. Their plan was to place 36 barrels of gunpowder there and blow up the king but the day before they planned this, because of a letter sent to Lord Monteagle from Treshman, Fawkes who was watching the gunpowder was discovered by soldiers, arrested and taken to the tower of London. When Catesby heard about Fawkes arrest, the rest of the conspirators fled and turned against one another. When they were put on trial, all but Sir Edward Digby pleaded not guilty. The eventual outcome was execution for all the conspirators.
Works Cited
Matthew, H. C. G. "Fawkes, Guy." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest times to the Year 2000. Oxford: Oxford Univ, 2004. 190-194. Print.
Matthew, H. C. G. "Casteby, Robert." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: From the Earliest times to the Year 2000. Oxford: Oxford Univ, 2004. 532-535. Print.
King Charles I (1600 - 1649)
By Courtney Gerou
King Charles I was the king of England, Ireland and Scotland from 1625 until 1649. The third child of James VI, was in fact second in line to the throne after his older brother Henry died at sometime between the years of 1612 and 1613. In the 1630's Charles turned to Henrietta Maria to be his confidant and companion, developing a loving relationship that is referred to as being “a model of marital devotion” (Gardiner, 150). During this time, Charles also found great joy in the court masques, or staged plays and musicals, that were put on at the palace, sparing no expense as “the staging, costumes, and special effects became increasingly elaborate” (Matthew, 105). In fact, Charles took great care to make sure that artist felt welcome in England, contracting many to decorate the palace. Charles' reign was cut short when, in his attempt to force his Anglican beliefs on his entire kingdom. As a result, rebellions ensued and eventually led to civil war among England, Ireland, and Scotland. These unfortunate events were all used in Charles' trial and substantial execution in 1649.
Works Cited
Gardiner, Juliet, and Neil Wenborn. "Charles I." The Columbia Companion to British History. New York: Columbia UP, 1997. 149-51. Print.
Matthew, H. C. G., and Brian Harrison. "Charles I." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 11. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. 96-122. Print.
1623-1673: Margaret Cavendish
Abbey Gallagher
Born in 1623, Margaret Cavendish was raised in England by Thomas Lucas and Elizabeth Leighton. As a child, she had tutors for various subjects including reading, writing, and playing music. In 1645, she married William Cavendish, becoming the duchess of Newcastle upon Tyne (Fitzmaurice 633). Margaret was a writer and published many works including Poems and Fancies (originally published in 1653), in which she discusses atomic theory (Fitzmaurice 634), Nature’s Pictures (originally published in 1656), a collection of love stories that grapple with ideas of sex and gender, and A True Relation of my Birth, Breeding and Life, her autobiography (Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish, 710), amongst many others. She also wrote dramas in which she manipulates Shakespeare’s plots, which had never before been done (Fitzmaurice 635). In 1673, Margaret died and in her memory, her husband published a collection of letters and poems that hadn’t been released before. Scientists, feminists, and thespians still continue to recognize Margaret’s work today (Fitzmaurice 636). It is especially remarkable that she had such success as a writer as a female in the time that she was alive, with the informal education that she had.
Works Cited
Fitzmaurice, James. “Cavendish, Margaret.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Ed. H.C.G Matthew and Brian Harrison. Vol. 10. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2004. Print.
“Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish.” The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Ed. Dinah Birch. 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2009. Print.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Comments (1)
N02471143@hawkmail.newpaltz.edu said
at 10:35 am on Feb 21, 2014
woooooooooo
You don't have permission to comment on this page.